Home  ›  What is the most produced plants, that are used to make drugs, in South America?

What is the most produced plants, that are used to make drugs, in South America?

Written By Friday, April 8, 2022 Add Comment Edit

Group of institute varieties cultivated for coca product

Coca
Erythroxylum novogranatense var. Novogranatense (retouched).jpg

Erythroxylum novogranatense var. novogranatense leaves and berries
Source found(s) Erythroxylum coca var. coca, Erythroxylum coca var. ipadu, Erythroxylum novogranatense var. novogranatense, Erythroxylum novogranatense var. truxillense
Part(s) of found Leaf
Geographic origin Andes[1]
Agile ingredients Cocaine, benzoylecgonine, ecgonine, others
Legal status
  • AU: S9 (Prohibited substance)
  • CA : Schedule I
  • UK: Class A
  • U.s.a.: Schedule II
  • United nations: Narcotic Schedule I
  • Controlled unless decocainized

Coca is any of the 4 cultivated plants in the family Erythroxylaceae, native to western South America. Coca is known worldwide for its psychoactive alkaloid, cocaine.

The plant is grown equally a cash crop in Argentine Northwest, Bolivia, Colombia, Republic of ecuador, and Republic of peru, fifty-fifty in areas where its cultivation is unlawful.[2] There are some reports that the plant is being cultivated in the south of Mexico equally an alternative to smuggling its recreational production cocaine.[3] Information technology also plays a role in many traditional Andean cultures every bit well as the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (see Traditional uses).

The cocaine alkaloid content of dry Erythroxylum coca var. coca leaves was measured ranging from 0.23% to 0.96%.[4] Coca-Cola used coca leafage extract in its products from 1885 until about 1903, and started using decocainized leaf excerpt ever since.[5] [6] [vii] Extraction of cocaine from coca requires several solvents and a chemic procedure known as an acid-base extraction, which tin can fairly easily extract the alkaloids from the plant.

Clarification [edit]

The coca plant resembles a blackthorn bush, and grows to a summit of two to iii metres (vii to 10 feet). The branches are direct, and the leaves are thin, opaque, oval, and taper at the extremities. A marked feature of the leaf is an areolated portion bounded by 2 longitudinal curved lines, one line on each side of the midrib, and more conspicuous on the under face of the leafage.

The flowers are small, and tending in clusters on short stalks; the corolla is composed of 5 xanthous-white petals, the anthers are eye-shaped, and the pistil consists of three carpels united to form a 3-chambered ovary. The flowers mature into red berries.

The leaves are sometimes eaten past the larvae of the moth Eloria noyesi.

Species and evolution [edit]

In that location are 2 species of cultivated coca, each with 2 varieties:

  • Erythroxylum coca
    • Erythroxylum coca var. coca (Bolivian or Huánuco Coca) – well adjusted to the eastern Andes of Peru and Bolivia, an area of boiling, tropical, montane forest.
    • Erythroxylum coca var. ipadu (Amazonian Coca) – cultivated in the lowland Amazon Basin in Republic of peru and Colombia.
  • Erythroxylum novogranatense
    • Erythroxylum novogranatense var. novogranatense (Colombian Coca) – a highland diversity that is utilized in lowland areas. It is cultivated in drier regions found in Colombia. However, Eastward. novogranatense is very adaptable to varying ecological atmospheric condition. The leaves accept parallel lines on either side of the central vein.
    • Erythroxylum novogranatense var. truxillense (Trujillo Coca) – grown primarily in Peru and Colombia. the leaves of Eastward. novogranatense var. truxillense exercise non have parallel lines on either side of the key vein like all other varieties.

All iv of the cultivated cocas were domesticated in pre-Columbian times and are more closely related to each other than to whatever other species.[two]

At that place are two principal theories relating to the development of the cultivated cocas. The beginning (put forth past Plowman[8] and Bohm[ix]) suggests that Erythroxylum coca var. coca is ancestral, while Erythroxylum novogranatense var. truxillense is derived from it to be drought tolerant, and Erythroxylum novogranatense var. novogranatense derived from Erythroxylum novogranatense var. truxillense.

Contempo research based on genetic testify (Johnson et al. in 2005,[x] Emche et al. in 2011,[11] and Islam 2011[12]) does not support this linear evolution and instead suggests a second domestication result as the origin of the Erythroxylum novogranatense varieties. There may exist a common, just undiscovered antecedent.[11]

Wild populations of Erythroxylum coca var. coca are found in the eastern Andes; the other 3 taxa are only known as cultivated plants.

The two subspecies of Erythroxylum coca are about duplicate phenotypically. Erythroxylum novogranatense var. novogranatense and Erythroxylum novogranatense var. truxillense are phenotypically similar, but morphologically distinguishable. Under the older Cronquist system of classifying flowering plants, this was placed in an order Linales; more modern systems place it in the order Malpighiales.

Herbicide resistant varieties [edit]

Also known as supercoca or la millionaria, Boliviana negra is a relatively new form of coca that is resistant to a herbicide chosen glyphosate. Glyphosate is a key ingredient in the multibillion-dollar aeriform coca eradication campaign undertaken past the regime of Colombia with U.S. fiscal and armed forces backing known equally Plan Colombia.

The herbicide resistance of this strain has at to the lowest degree ii possible explanations: that a "peer-to-peer" network of coca farmers used selective breeding to raise this trait through tireless effort, or the plant was genetically modified in a laboratory. In 1996, a patented glyphosate-resistant soybean was marketed past Monsanto Company, suggesting that information technology would be possible to genetically change coca in an analogous manner. Spraying Boliviana negra with glyphosate would serve to strengthen its growth by eliminating the non-resistant weeds surrounding it. Joshua Davis, in the Wired commodity cited below, constitute no evidence of CP4 EPSPS, a protein produced by the glyphosate-resistant soybean, suggesting Bolivana negra was either created in a lab by a different technique or bred in the field.[thirteen] [xiv]

Cultivation [edit]

Coca is traditionally cultivated in the lower altitudes of the eastern slopes of the Andes (the Yungas), or the highlands depending on the species grown. Coca product begins in the valleys and upper jungle regions of the Andean region, where the countries of Colombia, Republic of peru and Bolivia[fifteen] [xvi] are host to more 98 per cent of the global state area planted with coca.[17] In 2014, Coca plantations were discovered in Mexico,[18] and in 2020 in Honduras,[nineteen] which could have major implications for the illegal cultivation of the establish.

The seeds are sown from December to January in small-scale plots ( almacigas ) sheltered from the lord's day, and the immature plants when at 40 to sixty centimetres (16 to 24 inches) in height are placed in final planting holes ( aspi ), or if the ground is level, in furrows ( uachos ) in carefully weeded soil. The plants thrive all-time in hot, damp and humid locations, such as the clearings of forests; but the leaves nigh preferred are obtained in drier areas, on the hillsides. The leaves are gathered from plants varying in age from one and a half to upwards of forty years, just only the new fresh growth is harvested. They are considered ready for plucking when they intermission on being aptitude. The outset and virtually abundant harvest is in March after the rainy season, the second is at the terminate of June, and the third in October or November. The light-green leaves (matu) are spread in thin layers on fibroid woollen cloths and stale in the sun; they are then packed in sacks, which must be kept dry in order to preserve the quality of the leaves.[20]

Morphology of the coca plant

  • Leaves

  • Leaves and fruit

  • Leaves and branches

Pharmacological aspects [edit]

Cocaine, the psychoactive constituent of coca

The pharmacologically active ingredient of coca is the cocaine alkaloid, which is found in the amount of nearly 0.3 to 1.five%, averaging 0.8%,[21] in fresh leaves. Likewise cocaine, the coca leaf contains a number of other alkaloids, including methylecgonine cinnamate, benzoylecgonine, truxilline, hydroxytropacocaine, tropacocaine, ecgonine, cuscohygrine, dihydrocuscohygrine, nicotine, and hygrine.[22] When chewed, coca acts as a balmy stimulant and suppresses hunger, thirst, pain, and fatigue.[23] [24] Absorption of coca from the leaf is less rapid than nasal application of purified forms of the alkaloid (near all of the coca alkaloid is absorbed within twenty minutes of nasal awarding,[25] while it takes ii–12 hours after ingestion of the raw leaf for alkaline concentrations to meridian.[26]). When the raw leafage is consumed in tea, betwixt 59 and 90% of the coca alkaloid is absorbed.[27]

The coca leaf, when consumed in its natural grade, does not induce a physiological or psychological dependence, nor does abstinence afterward long-term use produce symptoms typical to substance addiction.[28] [29] Due to its alkaloid content and non-addictive backdrop, coca has been suggested as a method to help recovering cocaine addicts to wean off the drug.[30] [31]

Addiction controversy [edit]

Coca users ingest between 60 and lxxx milligrams of cocaine each time they chew the leaves according to United Nations Office on Drugs and Offense (UNODC).[32] Nonetheless, other sources claim that the coca leaf, when consumed in its natural form or as coca tea, does not induce a physiological or psychological dependence, nor does abstinence after long-term use produce symptoms typical to substance habit.[28] [29] [33] [34] See also Erythroxylum coca, and Erythroxylum novogranatense spp.

History [edit]

Workers in Coffee prepared coca leaves. This product was mainly traded in Amsterdam, and was further processed into cocaine. (Dutch East Indies, before 1940.)

Traces of coca leaves institute in northern Republic of peru dates the communal chewing of coca with lime (the alkaline mineral, not the citrus fruit) 8000 years back.[35] Other evidence of coca traces take been found in mummies dating 3000 years back in northern Chile.[36] Beginning with the Valdivian civilisation, circa 3000 BC, at that place is an unbroken record of coca leaf consumption past succeeding cultural groups on the coast of Ecuador until European arrival every bit shown in their ceramic sculpture and arable caleros or lime pots. Lime containers plant in the north coast of Peru date effectually 2000 BC as evidenced by the findings at Huaca Prieta and the Jetetepeque river valley. Extensive archaeological prove for the chewing of coca leaves dates dorsum at least to the sixth century AD Moche period, and the subsequent Inca period, based on mummies found with a supply of coca leaves, pottery depicting the characteristic cheek bulge of a coca chewer, spatulas for extracting alkali and figured bags for coca leaves and lime made from precious metals, and gold representations of coca in special gardens of the Inca in Cuzco.[37] [38]

Coca chewing may originally have been express to the eastern Andes earlier its introduction to the Inca. As the plant was viewed as having a divine origin, its cultivation became subject to a land monopoly and its utilise restricted to nobles and a few favored classes (court orators, couriers, favored public workers, and the regular army) by the rule of the Topa Inca (1471–1493). Every bit the Incan empire declined, the leaf became more widely available. After some deliberation, Philip Two of Espana issued a decree recognizing the drug as essential to the well-being of the Andean Indians but urging missionaries to end its religious utilise. The Castilian are believed to have effectively encouraged use of coca past an increasing majority of the population to increment their labor output and tolerance for starvation, but it is non articulate that this was planned deliberately.[39]

Coca was first introduced to Europe in the 16th century, but did not get pop until the mid-19th century, with the publication of an influential paper past Dr. Paolo Mantegazza praising its stimulating effects on cognition. This led to the invention of coca wine and the showtime production of pure cocaine. Coca vino (of which Vin Mariani was the best-known make) and other coca-containing preparations were widely sold as patent medicines and tonics, with claims of a wide variety of health benefits. The original version of Coca-Cola was among these. These products became illegal in well-nigh countries outside of Due south America in the early 20th century, after the addictive nature of cocaine was widely recognized. In 1859, Albert Niemann of the University of Göttingen became the first person to isolate the main alkaloid of coca, which he named "cocaine".[forty]

In the early 20th century, the Dutch colony of Coffee became a leading exporter of coca leafage. By 1912 shipments to Amsterdam, where the leaves were processed into cocaine, reached 1000 tons, overtaking the Peruvian export market place. Apart from the years of the Showtime World War, Java remained a greater exporter of coca than Peru until the stop of the 1920s.[41] Other colonial powers likewise tried to abound coca (including the British in Republic of india), just with the exception of the Japanese in Formosa, these were relatively unsuccessful.[41]

In recent times (2006), the governments of several South American countries, such equally Republic of peru, Bolivia and Venezuela, have defended and championed the traditional utilize of coca, as well as the modern uses of the leaf and its extracts in household products such as teas and toothpaste. The coca establish was also the inspiration for Bolivia'south Coca Museum.

Coca employ by the Incas [edit]

Ethnohistorical sources [edit]

While many historians are in agreement that coca was a contributing gene to the daily life of the Inca, at that place are many dissimilar theories as to how this civilisation came to adopt information technology as one of its staple crops and equally a valued commodity. The Incas were able to attain significant things while stimulated by the effects of coca. The Incas did not have a graphical written language, but used the quipu, a cobweb recording device. Spanish documents make information technology clear that coca was one of the most important elements of Inca civilisation. Coca was used in Inca feasts and religious rituals, among many other things.[42] Information technology was a driving cistron in the labor efforts that Inca kings asked of their citizens, and also used to barter for other goods. Coca was vital to the Inca civilization and its culture. The Incas valued coca and so much that they colonized tropical rain forests to the north and east of their capital in Cuzco and then that they could increase and command their supply. The Incas colonized more humid regions because coca cannot abound in a higher place 2600 meters in elevation (coca is not frost-resistant).[43]

Coca use in labor and armed services service [edit]

Ane of the most mutual uses of coca during the reign of the Inca was in the context of mit'a labor, a labor tax required of all able-bodied men in the Inca empire, and also in military service. Pedro Cieza de León wrote that the ethnic people of the Andes always seemed to have coca in their mouths. Mit'a laborers, soldiers, and others chewed coca to convalesce hunger and thirst while they were working and fighting. The results of this are axiomatic in monumental construction and the successful expansion of the Inca empire through conquest. By chewing coca, laborers and soldiers were able to work harder and for longer periods. Some historians believe that coca and chicha (fermented corn beer) made information technology possible for the Incas to move big stones in order to create architectural masterpieces, especially ones of monolithic construction such equally Sacsayhuaman.[43]

Coca use in religious rituals [edit]

Due to the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire, the Spaniards had direct admission to the Inca. They had insight to their everyday lives, and it is through their lens that we acquire about religion in the Inca Empire. While the indigenous author Pedro Cieza de León wrote about the effects coca had on the Inca, multiple Castilian men wrote about the importance of coca in their spirituality. For example Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa, Father Bernabé Cobo, and Juan de Ulloa Mogollón noted how the Incas would leave coca leaves at important locations throughout the empire. They considered coca to be the highest form of plant offering that the Incas made.[43]

The Incas would put coca leaves in the mouths of mummies, which were a sacred part of Inca civilization. Mummies of Inca emperors were regarded for their wisdom and often consulted for important matters long after the body had deteriorated. Not only did many Inca mummies accept coca leaves in their mouths, but they also carried coca leaves in bags.[43] These are believed to be Inca sacrifices, and like the Aztecs, the Inca participated in sacrifices every bit well. It is clear that the Incas had a potent belief in the divinity of the coca leaf as there is now evidence that both the living and the dead were subjected to coca use. They even sent their sacrifices off to their death with a sacrificial bag of coca leaves. The coca leafage afflicted all stages of life for the Inca. Coca was also used in divination every bit ritual priests would fire a mixture of coca and llama fat and predict the time to come based on the appearance of the flame.[44]

Coca use later the Spanish invasion and colonisation [edit]

Afterward the Spanish invasion and colonisation of the Inca Empire, the use of coca was restricted and appropriated by the Spaniards. Past many historical accounts, the Spaniards tried to eradicate the coca foliage from Inca life. The Spaniards enslaved Inca people and tried to preclude them from having "the luxury" of the coca leafage. Although the Spaniards noticed the state-controlled storage facilities that the Inca had built to distribute to its workers,[43] they were still ignorant to plant spirit, divinity of coca, and the Incan comprisal of the quondam. "This is my blood, this is my body" remembrance now was overshadowed by gates of behavior meeting efforts of worker control and service within piece of work to spread concepts within outreach to support divinity and rights of the divine to exist in the divine's works. Non but that, enslaved Inca people were not capable of indelible the arduous labour the Spaniards made them practise without using coca. Even though Spaniards were trying to push Catholicism onto the Inca, which did not allow them to eat earlier the Eucharist (the Spaniards thought coca to exist food), they allowed them to continue to apply coca to endure the labour associated with slavery.[42] Later seeing the effects and powers of the coca establish, many Spaniards saw another opportunity for appropriation of Inca culture and started growing and selling coca themselves.

Traditional uses [edit]

Man belongings coca leaf in Bolivia

Medicine [edit]

Traditional medical uses of coca are foremost equally a stimulant to overcome fatigue, hunger, and thirst. Information technology is considered peculiarly effective against altitude sickness.[45] Information technology as well is used equally an anesthetic and analgesic to alleviate the pain of headache, rheumatism, wounds and sores, etc. Before stronger anaesthetics were available, information technology besides was used for cleaved basic, childbirth, and during trepanning operations on the skull.[45] The high calcium content in coca explains why people used information technology for os fractures.[45] Because coca constricts claret vessels, it as well serves to oppose bleeding, and coca seeds were used for nosebleeds. Indigenous apply of coca has as well been reported as a treatment for malaria, ulcers, asthma, to improve digestion, to baby-sit against bowel laxity, as an aphrodisiac, and credited with improving longevity. Mod studies have supported a number of these medical applications.[23] [45]

Nutrition [edit]

Raw coca leaves, chewed or consumed every bit tea or mate de coca, are rich in nutritional properties. Specifically, the coca plant contains essential minerals (calcium, potassium, phosphorus), vitamins (B1, B2, C, and East) and nutrients such as protein and fiber.[46] [47]

Organized religion [edit]

Coca has also been a vital part of the religious cosmology of the Andean peoples of Republic of peru, Chile, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia and northwest Argentine republic from the pre-Inca period through to the present. Coca leaves play a crucial role in offerings to the apus (mountains), Inti (the sun), or Pachamama (the earth). Coca leaves are also often read in a form of divination coordinating to reading tea leaves in other cultures. As one example of the many traditional beliefs most coca, it is believed by the miners of Cerro de Pasco to soften the veins of ore, if masticated (chewed) and thrown upon them (run across Cocamama in Inca mythology).[ citation needed ] In addition, coca utilise in shamanic rituals is well documented wherever local native populations have cultivated the plant. For example, the Tayronas of Republic of colombia's Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta would chew the plant earlier engaging in extended meditation and prayer.[48]

Chew [edit]

In Bolivia bags of coca leaves are sold in local markets and by street vendors. The activity of chewing coca is chosen mambear, chacchar or acullicar, borrowed from Quechua, coquear (Northwest Argentina), or in Bolivia, picchar, derived from the Aymara linguistic communication. The Spanish masticar is too ofttimes used, forth with the slang term "bolear," derived from the word "bola" or ball of coca pouched in the cheek while chewing. Typical coca consumption varies between 20 and 60 grams per day,[49] and contemporary methods are believed to be unchanged from ancient times.[ citation needed ] Coca is kept in a woven pouch (chuspa or huallqui). A few leaves are chosen to form a quid (acullico) held between the rima oris and gums. Doing so may crusade a tingling and numbing sensation in the mouth, in like fashion to the formerly ubiquitous dental anaesthetic novocaine (as both cocaine and novocaine vest to the amino ester grade of local anesthetics).

Chewing coca leaves is most common in ethnic communities across the central Andean region,[48] peculiarly in places like the highlands of Argentina, Republic of colombia, Republic of bolivia, and Peru, where the cultivation and consumption of coca is a part of the national culture, similar to chicha. It also serves as a powerful symbol of indigenous cultural and religious identity, amidst a diversity of indigenous nations throughout S America.[48] Chewing plants for medicinal generally stimulating effects has a long history throughout the world: Khat in East Africa & the Arabian Peninsula, Tobacco in North America and Australia, and Areca nut in Southward/Southeast Asia & the Pacific Basin. Tobacco leaves were besides traditionally chewed in the same fashion in North America (modern chewing tobacco is typically heavily candy). Khat chewing also has a history as a social custom dating back thousands of years coordinating to the use of coca leaves.[50]

Llipta is used to improve extraction when chewing coca (Museo de la Coca, Cusco, Peru)

One pick for chewing coca is with a tiny quantity of ilucta (a training of the ashes of the quinoa institute) added to the coca leaves; it softens their astringent flavor and activates the alkaloids.[ commendation needed ] Other names for this basifying substance are llipta in Republic of peru and the Spanish discussion lejía, bleach in English language. The consumer carefully uses a wooden stick (formerly often a spatula of precious metal) to transfer an alkaline component into the quid without touching his flesh with the corrosive substance. The alkali component, commonly kept in a gourd (ishcupuro or poporo), can be made past burning limestone to class unslaked quicklime, burning quinoa stalks, or the bawl from certain trees, and may exist called llipta, tocra or mambe depending on its limerick.[37] [38] Many of these materials are salty in flavor, but at that place are variations. The most common base[ commendation needed ] in the La Paz area of Bolivia is a production known every bit lejía dulce (sweetness lye), which is made from quinoa ashes mixed with aniseed and pikestaff carbohydrate, forming a soft black putty with a sweet and pleasing season. In some places, baking soda is used nether the name bico.

In the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, on the Caribbean Coast of Republic of colombia, coca is consumed[48] by the Kogi, Arhuaco, and Wiwa by using a special device called poporo.[48] It represents the womb and the stick is a phallic symbol. The movements of the stick in the poporo symbolize the sexual act. For a man the poporo is a good companion that means "food", "woman", "memory", and "meditation". The poporo is the marking of manhood. When a boy is ready to exist married, his female parent initiates him in the apply of the coca. This act of initiation is carefully supervised past the Mamo, a traditional priest-teacher-leader.[ citation needed ]

Fresh samples of the dried leaves, uncurled, are a deep green color on the upper surface, and a greyness-green on the lower surface, and accept a stiff tea-like aroma. When chewed, they produce a pleasurable numbness in the rima oris, and take a pleasant, pungent taste. They are traditionally chewed with lime or some other reagent such as bicarbonate of soda to increment the release of the active ingredients from the leaf. Older species have a camphoraceous odor and a dark-brown colour, and lack the pungent taste.[51] Encounter too Erythroxylum coca, and Erythroxylum novogranatense spp.

Ypadú is an unrefined, unconcentrated pulverization made from coca leaves and the ash of various other plants.

Tea [edit]

Although coca leaf chewing is common only amid the indigenous populations,[45] the consumption of coca tea (Mate de coca) is common amid all sectors of society in the Andean countries, particularly due to their high elevations from sea level,[45] and is widely held to exist beneficial to health, mood, and energy.[45] Coca leaf is sold packaged into teabags in near grocery stores in the region, and establishments that cater to tourists more often than not feature coca tea.

Commercial and industrial uses [edit]

In the Andes commercially manufactured coca teas, granola bars, cookies, difficult candies, etc. are available in almost stores and supermarkets, including upscale suburban supermarkets.[ citation needed ]

Coca is used industrially in the cosmetics and food industries. A decocainized extract of coca leaf is one of the flavoring ingredients in Coca-Cola. Earlier the criminalization of cocaine, however, the extract was not decocainized, and hence Coca-Cola'southward original formula did indeed include cocaine.[5] [7] [52]

Coca tea is produced industrially from coca leaves in South America by a number of companies, including Enaco S.A. (National Company of the Coca), a regime enterprise in Peru.[53] [54] Coca leaves are also institute in a brand of herbal liqueur called "Agwa de Bolivia" (grown in Republic of bolivia and de-cocainized in Amsterdam),[55] and a natural flavouring ingredient in Red Bull Cola, that was launched in March 2008.[56]

New markets [edit]

Beginning in the early 21st century, at that place has been a motion in Republic of bolivia, Peru,[57] and Venezuela to promote and expand legal markets for the ingather. The presidents of these three countries accept personally identified with this movement. In item, Evo Morales of Bolivia (elected in December 2005) was a coca grower's union leader. Morales asserts that "la coca no es cocaína"—the coca foliage is not cocaine. During his speech to the Full general Assembly of the Un on September 19, 2006, he held a coca leaf in his mitt to demonstrate its innocuity.[58]

Alan García, president of Republic of peru, has recommended its utilize in salads and other edible preparations. A Peruvian-based visitor has announced plans to market a modern version of Vin Mariani, which will be available in both natural and de-cocainized varieties.

In Venezuela, old president Hugo Chávez said in a speech in January 2008 that he chews coca every day, and that his "hook upwards" is Bolivian president Evo Morales. Chávez reportedly said "I chew coca every day in the morning... and look how I am" before showing his biceps to his audience, the Venezuelan National Associates.[59]

On the other manus, the Colombian government has recently moved in the opposite direction. For years, Bogotá has allowed indigenous coca farmers to sell coca products, promoting the enterprise as 1 of the few successful commercial opportunities available to recognized tribes like the Nasa, who have grown it for years and regard it every bit sacred.[threescore] In December 2005, the Paeces – a Tierradentro (Cauca) ethnic community – started to produce a carbonated soft drink chosen "Coca Sek". The product method belongs to the resguardos of Calderas (Inzá) and takes nigh 150 kg (331 lb) of coca per 3,000 produced bottles. The drink was never sold widely in Republic of colombia and efforts to practice so ended in May 2007 when it was abruptly banned by the Colombian authorities.[ citation needed ]

Coca Colla is an energy drinkable which is produced in Bolivia with the use of coca extract as its base. Information technology was launched on the Bolivian markets in La Paz, Santa Cruz, and Cochabamba in mid-Apr 2010.[61] [62]

Literary references [edit]

Probably the earliest reference to coca in English language literature is in "Pomona", the fifth volume of Abraham Cowley'due south posthumously published Latin work, Plantarum libri sexual activity (1668; translated every bit Six Books of Plants in 1689).[63] [64] In the serial of Aubrey-Maturin novels by Patrick O'Brien, set during the Napoleonic wars, Dr. Stephen Maturin, a naval doc, naturalist, and British intelligence agent discovers the utilise of coca leaves on a mission to Peru, and makes regular employ of them in several of the later novels in the series.

International prohibition of coca leafage [edit]

Coca foliage is the raw fabric for the manufacture of the drug cocaine, a powerful stimulant and anaesthetic extracted chemically from big quantities of coca leaves. Today, since it has generally been replaced as a medical anaesthetic by synthetic analogues such as procaine, cocaine is best known as an illegal recreational drug. The tillage, auction, and possession of unprocessed coca leaf (but not of whatever processed form of cocaine) is generally legal in the countries – such as Republic of bolivia, Peru, Chile, and Argentine Northwest – where traditional use is established, although cultivation is often restricted in an attempt to control the production of cocaine. In the case of Argentina, it is legal only in some northwest provinces where the practice is so common that the country has accepted it.

The prohibition of the use of the coca leaf except for medical or scientific purposes was established by the United Nations in the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. The coca leaf is listed on Schedule I of the 1961 Single Convention together with cocaine and heroin. The Convention adamant that "The Parties shall so far as possible enforce the uprooting of all coca bushes which grow wild. They shall destroy the coca bushes if illegally cultivated" (Article 26), and that, "Coca foliage chewing must be abolished within 20-5 years from the coming into force of this Convention" (Article 49, 2.e).[65]

The historic rationale for international prohibition of coca leaf in the 1961 Single Convention comes from "The Committee of Research on the Coca Leaf study" published in 1950. Information technology was requested of the United Nations by the permanent representative of Peru, and was prepared by a committee that visited Bolivia and Republic of peru briefly in 1949 to "investigate the effects of chewing the coca leaf and the possibilities of limiting its production and controlling its distribution." It ended that the effects of chewing coca leaves were negative, fifty-fifty though chewing coca was defined as a addiction, not an addiction.[66] [67]

The report was sharply criticised for its arbitrariness, lack of precision, and racist connotations.[45] The squad members' professional qualifications and parallel interests were also criticised, equally were the methodology used and the incomplete selection and utilise of existing scientific literature on the coca leaf. Questions accept been raised as to whether a similar written report today would laissez passer the scrutiny and critical review to which scientific studies are routinely subjected.[52]

Despite the legal restriction among countries party to the international treaty, coca chewing and drinking of coca tea is carried out daily by millions of people in the Andes also as considered sacred within indigenous cultures. Coca consumers claim that most of the information provided well-nigh the traditional use of the coca leaf and its modern adaptations are erroneous.[45] This has fabricated it incommunicable to shed light on the establish'due south positive aspects and its potential benefits for the physical, mental, and social wellness of the people who consume and cultivate it.[45] [52]

In an attempt to obtain international acceptance for the legal recognition of traditional use of coca in their respective countries, Republic of peru and Bolivia successfully led an amendment, paragraph two of Article 14 into the 1988 United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, stipulating that measures to eradicate illicit cultivation and to eliminate illicit demand "should take due account of traditional licit use, where there is historic evidence of such employ."[68] Bolivia besides made a formal reservation to the 1988 Convention, which required countries to prefer measures to establish the use, consumption, possession, purchase or cultivation of the coca leaf for personal consumption equally a criminal offence. Bolivia stated that "the coca leaf is not, in and of itself, a narcotic drug or psychotropic substance" and stressed that its "legal system recognizes the ancestral nature of the licit use of the coca foliage, which, for much of Bolivia's population, dates back over centuries."[68] [69]

Notwithstanding, the International Narcotics Control Lath (INCB) – the contained and quasi-judicial command organ for the implementation of the United Nations drug conventions – denied the validity of commodity 14 in the 1988 Convention over the requirements of the 1961 Convention, or whatever reservation made by parties, since it does not "absolve a party of its rights and obligations nether the other international drug control treaties."[seventy]

The INCB stated in its 1994 Annual Report that "mate de coca, which is considered harmless and legal in several countries in South America, is an illegal activity nether the provisions of both the 1961 Convention and the 1988 Convention, though that was not the intention of the plenipotentiary conferences that adopted those conventions."[71] It implicitly as well dismissed the original report of the Commission of Research on the Coca Leaf past recognizing that "at that place is a need to undertake a scientific review to assess the coca-chewing addiction and the drinking of coca tea."[72]

Yet, the INCB on other occasions did non bear witness signs of an increased sensitivity towards the Bolivian claim on the rights of their indigenous population, and the general public, to consume the coca leafage in a traditional manner by chewing the foliage, and drinking coca tea, as "not in line with the provisions of the 1961 Convention."[73] [74] The Board considered Bolivia, Peru and a few other countries that permit such practises to be in alienation with their treaty obligations, and insisted that "each party to the Convention should establish as a law-breaking, when committed intentionally, the possession and purchase of coca leaf for personal consumption."[75]

In reaction to the 2007 Almanac Study of the INCB, the Bolivian government announced that it would formally event a request to the United Nations to unschedule the coca leafage of Listing ane of the 1961 UN Single Convention.[76] Bolivia led a diplomatic effort to practice so beginning in March 2009, simply xviii countries out of a full of 184, those 18 being, listed chronologically: the United States, Sweden, Uk, Latvia, Japan, Canada, French republic, Germany, Bulgaria, Slovakia, Denmark, Estonia, Italy, United mexican states, Russian federation, Malaysia, Singapore, and Ukraine, objected to the modify before the January 2011 deadline. A single objection would accept been sufficient to block the modification. The legally unnecessary step of supporting the modify was taken formally by Spain, Ecuador, Venezuela, and Costa Rica.[77] In June 2011, Bolivia moved to denounce the 1961 Convention over the prohibition of the coca leaf.[78]

Since the 1980s, the countries in which coca is grown have come up under political and economic pressure level from the United States to restrict the cultivation of the crop in order to reduce the supply of cocaine on the international market.[45]

Article 26 of the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs requires nations that let the cultivation of coca to designate an bureau to regulate said cultivation and take concrete possession of the crops every bit shortly every bit possible after harvest, and to destroy all coca which grows wild or is illegally cultivated. The endeavour to enforce these provisions, referred to every bit coca eradication, has involved many strategies, ranging from aerial spraying of herbicides on coca crops to assistance and incentives to encourage farmers to grow alternative crops.[79]

This attempt has been politically controversial,[fourscore] with proponents claiming[ citation needed ] that the production of cocaine is several times the amount needed to satisfy legal demand and inferring that the vast majority of the coca crop is destined for the illegal market. As per the proclaimed view, this not just contributes to the major social problem of drug corruption but also financially supports insurgent groups that interact with drug traffickers in some cocaine-producing territories. Critics of the endeavor claim[45] that it creates hardship primarily for the coca growers, many of whom are poor and have no viable culling way to make a living, causes ecology problems, that it is not effective in reducing the supply of cocaine, in office because cultivation can move to other areas, and that any social impairment created past drug abuse is simply made worse by the State of war on Drugs.[45] The environmental problems include "ecocide", where vast tracts of land and forest are sprayed with glyphosate or Roundup, with the intention of eradicating the coca plant.[45] However, the incidental environmental damage is severe, because many institute species are wiped out in the process.[45]

Coca has been reintroduced to the United States as a flavoring agent in the herbal liqueur Agwa de Republic of bolivia.[81]

Boliviana negra, a genetically engineered blazon of coca, resists glyphosate herbicides and increases yields.

Legal status [edit]

The principal organization authorized to purchase coca leaves is ENACO South.A., headquartered in Republic of peru.[82] Outside of South America, about countries' laws brand no distinction between the coca leaf and any other substance containing cocaine, so the possession of coca leaf is prohibited. In South America coca foliage is illegal in both Paraguay and Brazil.

Netherlands [edit]

In kingdom of the netherlands, coca leaf is legally in the same category equally cocaine, equally both are List I drugs of the Opium Law. The Opium Law specifically mentions the leaves of the plants of the genus Erythroxylon. However, the possession of living plants of the genus Erythroxylon is not actively prosecuted, fifty-fifty though they are legally forbidden.

United States [edit]

Similar cocaine, coca is controlled under the Controlled Substance Act (CSA) as a Schedule II drug pregnant information technology is a restricted drug and is illegal to procedure without a prescription or a DEA registration.

In the United States, a Stepan Visitor found in Maywood, New Bailiwick of jersey is a registered importer of coca leaf. The company articles pure cocaine for medical use and also produces a cocaine-free extract of the coca leaf, which is used as a flavoring ingredient in Coca-Cola. Other companies that have registrations with the DEA to import coca leaf according to 2011 Federal Register Notices for Importers,[83] include Johnson Matthey, Inc, Pharmaceutical Materials; Mallinckrodt Inc; Penick Corporation; and the Research Triangle Institute. Analysts have noted the substantial importation of coca leaf into the U.s.a..[84] merely the actual quantity is unknown every bit much of it is illegally imported.

Canada [edit]

Coca leaf is listed as a Schedule I drug (nigh dangerous) co-ordinate to the Controlled Drugs and Substances Human activity of Canada (Due south.C. 1996, c. xix) alongside Opium (Heroin) and synthetic opioid analgesics. Specifically, it lists Coca (Erythroxylon), its preparations, derivatives, alkaloids, and salts, including:(1) Coca leaves (two) Cocaine and (iii) Ecgonine. Possession of a Schedule I substance is illegal and trafficking tin event in penalty of upwards to life imprisonment.[85]

Australia [edit]

Coca leaf is considered a Schedule 9 prohibited substance in Commonwealth of australia under the Poisons Standard (October 2015).[86] A Schedule 9 substance is a substance which may be driveling or misused, the manufacture, possession, sale or use of which should be prohibited by law except when required for medical or scientific research, or for analytical, teaching or training purposes with approval of Commonwealth and/or Land or Territory Wellness Authorities.[86]

India [edit]

Coca leaf is a controlled narcotic drug in Republic of india by the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985 which is the principal legislation governing the subject field. While its scientific and medical purposes are permissible in accordance with police force, whatsoever other indulgence including cultivation, possession, sale, consumption, transportation, import, export, are prohibited. Upon conviction, sentence depends upon the quantity which is categorized as small quantity (100 gm), commercial quantity (2000 gm) and quantity greater than small just less than commercial.

See also [edit]

  • Alcohol and Drugs History Society
  • Illegal drug trade in Latin America

References [edit]

  1. ^ Drug Enforcement Administration (April 23, 2013). "Coca: History". Cyberspace Archive. Archived from the original on October 25, 2014. Retrieved February 16, 2015.
  2. ^ a b Plowman, T (1979). "Botanical Perspectives on Coca". Journal of Psychedelic Drugs. eleven (1–2): 103–117. doi:10.1080/02791072.1979.10472095. PMID 522163.
  3. ^ De la Cruz, Manuel. "Policía mexicana realiza el primer hallazgo de cultivos de coca en el sur del país". La Republica. Archived from the original on 10 September 2017. Retrieved 27 March 2016.
  4. ^ Plowman, T; Rivier L (1983). "Cocaine and Cinnamoylcocaine content of 30-one species of Erythroxylum (Erythroxylaceae)". Annals of Phytology. London. 51: 641–659. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aob.a086511.
  5. ^ a b May, Clifford D (1988-07-01). "How Coca-Cola Obtains Its Coca". The New York Times. A Stepan laboratory in Maywood, N.J., is the nation's only legal commercial importer of coca leaves, which it obtains mainly from Peru and, to a bottom extent, Bolivia. Besides producing the coca flavoring agent for Coca-Cola, Stepan extracts cocaine from the coca leaves, which it sells to Mallinckrodt Inc., a St. Louis pharmaceutical manufacturer that is the only company in the U.s.a. licensed to purify the product for medicinal use.
  6. ^ "Coca Leaf". tni.org. one Jan 2015.
  7. ^ a b Benson, Drew. "Coca kick in drinks spurs export fears Archived 2012-05-30 at archive.today", The Washington Times, April xx, 2004. "Coke dropped cocaine from its recipe around 1900, but the hole-and-corner formula nonetheless calls for a cocaine-free coca extract produced at a Stepan Co. factory in Maywood, North.J. Stepan buys about 100 metric tons of dried Peruvian coca leaves each year, said Marco Castillo, spokesman for Peru'southward country-endemic National Coca Co."
  8. ^ Plowman T. "The Origin, Evolution, and Improvidence of Coca, Erythroxylum spp., in Southward and Key America." In: Stone D, ed. Pre-Columbian Plant Migration. Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archeology and Ethnology. Harvard University. Vol 76. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Printing; 1984. p. 125-163.
  9. ^ Bohm, B; Ganders F; Plowman T (1982). "Biosystematics and Evolution of Cultivated Coca (Erythroxylaceae)". Systematic Botany. 7 (2): 121–133. doi:10.2307/2418321. JSTOR 2418321.
  10. ^ Johnson, E; Zhang D; Emche S (2005). "Inter- and Intra-specific Variation amidst Five Erythroxylum Taxa Assessed by AFLP". Annals of Botany. 95 (iv): 601–608. doi:10.1093/aob/mci062. PMC4246853. PMID 15650009.
  11. ^ a b Emche, S; Zhang D; Islam Thou; Bailey B; Meinhardt Fifty (2011). "AFLP Phylogeny of 36 Erythroxylum Species Genetic Relationships Among Erythroxylum Species Inferred past AFLP Assay". Tropical Plant Biological science. iv: 126–133. doi:x.1007/s12042-011-9070-9. S2CID 19680835.
  12. ^ Islam M. Tracing the Evolutionary History of Coca (Erythroxylum) [PhD thesis]. Bedrock: University of Colorado, Boulder; 2011
  13. ^ Evolutionary History: Uniting History and Biology to Sympathise Life on Earth, Edmund Russell. Cambridge University Press. 2011. ISBN978-0-521-74509-3 . Retrieved 2011-03-12 .
  14. ^ Davis, Joshua (2004), "The Mystery of the Coca Plant That Wouldn't Die", WIRED, vol. 12, no. 11
  15. ^ "South American Cocaine Product". www.culturalsurvival.org . Retrieved 2020-08-13 .
  16. ^ colombiareports (2019-08-08). "Coca production | Republic of colombia Reports". Republic of colombia News | Colombia Reports . Retrieved 2020-08-xiii .
  17. ^ Dion, Michelle Fifty; Russler, Catherine (2008). "Eradication Efforts, The Country, Displacement And Poverty: Explaining Coca Cultivation In Colombia During Program Republic of colombia". Journal of Latin American Studies. 40 (three): 399–421. doi:10.1017/s0022216x08004380. S2CID 17370223.
  18. ^ The discovery of Mexico's first coca plantation Vice
  19. ^ [1]"in La Prensa 17 August 2020"
  20. ^ "Coca Tillage and Cocaine Processing:An Overview" (PDF).
  21. ^ "Illicit Production of Cocaine – [www.rhodium.ws]". Erowid.org. Retrieved 2013-03-26 .
  22. ^ Jenkins, Amanda; Llosa, Teobaldo; Montoya, Ivan; Cone, Edward (February 9, 1996). "Identification and quantitation of alkaloids in coca tea". Forensic Sci Int. 77 (iii): 179–189. doi:ten.1016/0379-0738(95)01860-iii. PMC2705900. PMID 8819993.
  23. ^ a b Weil, AT (Mar–May 1981). "The therapeutic value of coca in contemporary medicine". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. three (two–iii): 367–76. doi:10.1016/0378-8741(81)90064-vii. PMID 6113306.
  24. ^ National Institute on Drug Abuse. "Letter from the Director – National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA)". nih.gov.
  25. ^ BS, Liao; RL, Hilsinger; BM, Rasgon; K, Matsuoka; KK, Adour (January 1999). "A preliminary report of cocaine absorption from the nasal mucosa". Laryngoscope. 109 (i): 98–102. doi:x.1097/00005537-199901000-00019. PMID 9917048. S2CID 25605617.
  26. ^ Mazor, Susan; Mycyk, Mark; Wills, Brandon; Brace, Larry; Gussow, Leon; Erickson, Timothy (Dec 2006). "Coca tea consumption causes positive urine cocaine assay" (PDF). Eur J Emerg Med. thirteen (6): 341. doi:10.1097/01.mej.0000224424.36444.19. PMID 17091055. S2CID 27984168. Archived from the original (PDF) on September ten, 2013. Retrieved August four, 2014.
  27. ^ Jackson, GF; Saady, JJ; Poklis, A (Jan–February 1991). "Urinary excretion of benzoylecgonine post-obit ingestion of Wellness Inca Tea". Forensic Sci Int. 49 (1): 57–64. doi:10.1016/0379-0738(91)90171-e. PMID 2032667.
  28. ^ a b Hanna JM, Hornick CA., "Utilize of coca foliage in southern Republic of peru: accommodation or addiction," Bull Narc. 1977 Jan–Mar;29(1):63–74.
  29. ^ a b "Written report of the Commission of Enquiry on the Coca Foliage" (PDF). United nations Economic and Social Council: 31. May 1950. Retrieved August 4, 2014.
  30. ^ Hurtado-Gumucio, J (October 2000). "Coca leaf chewing every bit therapy for cocaine maintenance". Ann Med Interne. 151 Suppl B: B44-eight. PMID 11104945.
  31. ^ Oswaldo Francisco Ribas Lobos Fernández, doctoral thesis, Federal Academy of Bahia (UFBA), 2007; "Coca Calorie-free?"
  32. ^ "UNODC - Bulletin on Narcotics - 1952 Issue 2 - 008". www.unodc.org.
  33. ^ Jenkins, Amanda J.; Llosa, Teobaldo; Montoya, Ivan; Cone, Edward J. (9 Feb 1996). "Identification and quantitation of alkaloids in coca tea". Forensic Science International. 77 (3): 179–189. doi:10.1016/0379-0738(95)01860-3. ISSN 0379-0738. PMC2705900. PMID 8819993.
  34. ^ Biondich, Amy Sue; Joslin, Jeremy David (2016). "Coca: The History and Medical Significance of an Ancient Andean Tradition". Emergency Medicine International. 2016: 4048764. doi:10.1155/2016/4048764. ISSN 2090-2840. PMC4838786. PMID 27144028.
  35. ^ Dillehay; et al. (2010). "Early Holocene coca chewing in northern Republic of peru". Antiquity. 84 (326): 939–953. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00067004. S2CID 162889680.
  36. ^ Rivera MA; Aufderheide AC; Cartmell LW; Torres CM; Langsjoen O (December 2005). "Antiquity of coca-leaf chewing in the south central Andes: a 3,000 year archaeological record of coca-leafage chewing from northern Chile". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 37 (4): 455–458. doi:ten.1080/02791072.2005.10399820. PMID 16480174. S2CID 28661721.
  37. ^ a b Robert C. Petersen, Ph.D. (May 1977). "NIDA research monograph #13: Cocaine 1977, Affiliate I" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-09-29. Retrieved 2007-05-26 .
  38. ^ a b Eleanor Carroll, M.A. "Coca: the found and its use" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-09-26. Retrieved 2007-05-26 .
  39. ^ http://feastcreative.com, Feast Artistic. "Tairona Heritage Trust". world wide web.taironatrust.org . Retrieved 2019-03-31 .
  40. ^ Inciardi, James A. (1992). The War on Drugs Ii. Mayfield Publishing Company. p. half-dozen. ISBN1-55934-016-9.
  41. ^ a b Musto, DF (1998). "International traffic in coca through the early on 20th century". Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 49 (2): 145–156. doi:x.1016/s0376-8716(97)00157-nine. PMID 9543651.
  42. ^ a b Mortimer, W. Golden. Peru History of Coca: "The Divine Constitute" of the Incas. New York: J. H. Vail & Company, 1901.
  43. ^ a b c d e Valdez, Lidio One thousand., Juan Taboada, and J. Ernesto Valdez. 2015. "Ancient Use of Coca Leaves in the Peruvian Central Highlands." Journal of Anthropological Research 71 (ii): 231–58. doi:10.3998/jar.0521004.0071.204 .
  44. ^ von Hagen, Adriana (iv June 2015). Encyclopedia of the Incas. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 88. ISBN9780759123632.
  45. ^ a b c d e f g h i j thousand l m n o "Coca leaf: Myths and Reality". tni.org. 5 Baronial 2014.
  46. ^ James, A., Aulick, D., Plowman, T., 1975 "Nutritional Value of Coca", Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University 24 (vi): 113–119.
  47. ^ Harvard Study – Nutritional Value of Coca Leaf (Knuckles, Aulick, Plowman 1975)
  48. ^ a b c d e Museo del Oro, Banco de la Republica. "Museo del Oro, Colombia" (in Castilian). Banrep.gov.co. Archived from the original on 2013-05-11. Retrieved 2012-eleven-09 .
  49. ^ ZAPATA-ORTIZ, Vicente. "UNODC - Bulletin on Narcotics - 1952 Issue 2 - 008". world wide web.unodc.org . Retrieved 2018-06-twenty .
  50. ^ Al-Mugahed, Leen (2008). "Khat Chewing in Republic of yemen: Turning over a New Foliage: Khat Chewing Is on the Rise in Yemen, Raising Concerns nearly the Health and Social Consequences". Message of the Earth Health System. 86 (ten): 741–42. doi:10.2471/BLT.08.011008. PMC2649518. PMID 18949206. Retrieved 9 Jan 2014.
  51. ^ Biondich AS, Joslin JD (2016). "Coca: The History and Medical Significance of an Ancient Andean Tradition". Emerg Med Int. 2016: 4048764. doi:10.1155/2016/4048764. PMC4838786. PMID 27144028.
  52. ^ a b c Coca Yes, Cocaine No? Legal Options for the Coca Foliage, Transnational Institute, Drugs & Conflict Debate Paper 13, May 2006
  53. ^ "ENACO - Empresa Nacional de la Coca S.A." world wide web.enaco.com.pe . Retrieved May 21, 2020.
  54. ^ Peruvian Drug Command Agency: Coca Cola Buys Coca Leaves, The Narco News Message, January 28, 2005
  55. ^ Agwabuzz.com Archived 2009-02-15 at the Wayback Automobile Agwa de Bolivia herbal liqueur official site
  56. ^ "The Cola from Blood-red Bull". Archived from the original on June 3, 2013. Retrieved May 21, 2020.
  57. ^ Dean, Bartholomew 2013"Cocaine Capitalisms & Social Trauma in Peruvian Amazonia", Panoramas, University of Pittsburgh (July 17) [ii] Archived 2013-09-27 at the Wayback Auto
  58. ^ Statement of Evo Morales Aima Archived 2008-03-07 at the Wayback Automobile, President of Republic of bolivia at the 61st session of the Un Full general Assembly, September 19, 2006
  59. ^ "Chavez admits to chewing coca leaves". UPI . Retrieved 2018-10-06 .
  60. ^ Bolivia and Peru Defend Coca Utilize March vi, 2008. "The United Nations lacks respect for the indigenous people of Peru and Bolivia who have used the coca foliage since forever," said Peruvian Congresswoman Maria Sumire. "For ethnic people, coca is a sacred leaf that is part of their cultural identity," she said.
  61. ^ "Evo Morales launches 'Coca Colla'". Telegraph. x January 2010. Archived from the original on 2022-01-12. Retrieved 22 January 2010.
  62. ^ "Bolivia banks on 'Coca Colla,' fizzy coca-leaf drink". AFP. 10 January 2010. Retrieved 22 January 2010.
  63. ^ Peru. History of coca, "the divine plant" of the Incas; with an introductory business relationship of the Incas, and of the Andean Indians of to-day. W. Golden Mortimer, Thousand.D. Ed. J. H. Vail & Co, 1901. Abraham Cowley's verse form "A Legend of Coca" : in chapter I An introduction to the history of coca, pp. 25–27.
  64. ^ "The Third Part of the Works of Mr. Abraham Cowley Being his Six Books of Plants". cowley.lib.virginia.edu . Retrieved 2022-01-21 .
  65. ^ "Unmarried Convention on Narcotic Drugs" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on May 9, 2008. Retrieved May 21, 2020.
  66. ^ Commission of Enquiry on the Coca Foliage, UNGASS 10-yr review website, Transnational Constitute
  67. ^ The Commission of Enquiry on the Coca Leaf, Bulletin on Narcotics – 1949 Result ane
  68. ^ a b The resolution of ambiguities regarding coca, Transnational Institute, March 2008
  69. ^ Condition of treaty adherence, Un Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances
  70. ^ Report of the International Narcotics Command Lath for 2007 Archived 2008-09-10 at the Wayback Machine, paragraph 220
  71. ^ Evaluation of the effectiveness of the international drug control treaties Archived 2008-05-14 at the Wayback Machine, Supplement to the INCB Annual Study for 1994 (Part 3)
  72. ^ Evaluation of the effectiveness of the international drug control treaties Archived 2008-05-14 at the Wayback Car, Supplement to the INCB Almanac Report for 1994 (Part 1)
  73. ^ Report of the International Narcotics Command Lath for 2007 Archived 2008-09-10 at the Wayback Car, paragraph 217
  74. ^ Response to the 2007 Annual Report of the International Narcotics Command Board, International Drug Policy Consortium (IDPC), March 2008
  75. ^ Report of the International Narcotics Control Board for 2007 Archived 2008-09-10 at the Wayback Motorcar, paragraph 219
  76. ^ Alphabetic character Evo Morales to United nations Secretarial assistant General Ban Ki-moon, March eight, 2008
  77. ^ "Objections and support for Bolivia'due south coca amendment". Transnational Constitute. March 2011.
  78. ^ "Aprueban denuncia contra la Convención de Viena". Los Tiempos. 2011-06-23. Archived from the original on 2012-01-twenty. Retrieved 2011-06-23 .
  79. ^ Transnational Institute – Coca Myths, 2009.
  80. ^ Failed States and failed policies: how to stop the drug wars. The Economist, May 2009
  81. ^ "Swill: We Drank a Bottle of Coca Leafage Liqueur, For Science". 3 July 2015. Retrieved July 23, 2020.
  82. ^ "COCA, DRUGS AND SOCIAL Protestation IN BOLIVIA AND PERU". International Crisis Grouping. 12: 39. 18 Jan 2005.
  83. ^ "Importers Notice of Registration – 2011". deaDiversion.usdoj.gov. Retrieved 2012-11-09 .
  84. ^ "YouTube". www.youtube.com. Archived from the original on 2014-06-01.
  85. ^ Co-operative, Legislative Services (2019-06-21). "Consolidated federal laws of canada, Controlled Drugs and Substances Act". laws-lois.justice.gc.ca.
  86. ^ a b Poisons Standard Oct 2015 https://world wide web.comlaw.gov.au/Details/F2015L01534
  • Turner C. E., Elsohly M. A., Hanuš Fifty., Elsohly H. Northward. Isolation of dihydrocuscohygrine from Peruvian coca leaves. Phytochemistry xx (6), 1403–1405 (1981)
  • History of Coca. The Divine Plant of the Incas by Westward. Golden Mortimer, G.D. 576 pp. And/Or Printing San Francisco, 1974. This title has no ISBN.
  • [A] [three]

Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Coca". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. six (11th ed.). Cambridge Academy Press. pp. 614–615.

External links [edit]

  • Shared Responsibility
  • Coca foliage: Myths and Reality Transnational Institute (TNI)
  • Unscheduling the coca foliage, Transnational Institute (TNI)
  • Coca leafage news page

smithguaraction.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coca

0 Response to "What is the most produced plants, that are used to make drugs, in South America?"

Post a Comment

Subscribe to: Post Comments (Atom)

Iklan Atas Artikel

Iklan Tengah Artikel 1

Iklan Tengah Artikel 2

Iklan Bawah Artikel